Saturday, April 13, 2019

Biology Notes Essay Example for Free

Biology Notes EssayChromosomes They be found inside the nucleus of kiosks. They argon X Shaped Objects that Contain DNA. Each Chromosome is made from devil Chromatids. Chromosomes are held together by a disc called a centromere. Chromosomes are always found in Pairs.A TG CC GDNA It Stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is Made from Nucleic acids of ten (referred to as bases). The four bases are type A (A) which always pairs with Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) which always pairs with Guanine (G). T CA GT GRIGHT WRONGGenes A gene is the short length of the chromosome which is a molecule of a DNA. Genes sess exist in Different Versions. Different Versions of the corresponding gene are known as ALLELES. Each gene codes for a specific Protein. Some proteins are Structural, meaning they can form skin, hair, transmission line and cytoplasm. Others are Functional (enzymes) controlling chemical reactions such as respiration or digestion. genetical breeding is stored by Genes who a re arranged on Chromosomes. interlingual rendition This is the Difference between humans. There are two types of variation. The First is Genetic Variation (Ca utilised by your Genes and cant be changed e.g. your natural hair colour, look colour).The Second is Environmental Variation (Ca utilized by your surrounding and can be changed e.g. Dying your Hair, Ear Piercings). Genetic Variation Caused by the DNA in the cells in your clay. We Cant Change this. Environmental Variation Caused by your Surroundings, Family and Friends. We can Change this. Determining Your Gender A Sperm Cell has an X chromosome and a Y chromosome. An Egg Cell has two X Chromosomes. If the fertilised egg has a X Chromosome from the sperm the foetus w peaked(predicate) be a Girl if it has a Y Chromosome (the Chromosome carrying Testosterone) the Foetus will Be a Boy. There is a 5050 Chance of Having a Boy or a Girl. gain Gender DeterminationChromosome pair 23 is known as the Sex Chromosomes. There are two D ifferent types of of Chromosome 23 The X and Y chromosome. The only Difference is that the Y chromosome carries the gene for testosterone, X does not. any Cells carry at least one X Chromosome. Sperm Cells carry either a Y or X chromosome. allelomorph A assorted version of the same gene.Heterozygous When There are two types of an allele in the genotype e.g. Bb Brown. Homozygous When there is only one type of Allele in the genotype e.g. BB(-Brown) or bb(-Blonde). B = Dominant Always Expressed, b = Recessive only show in a Homozygous genotype. inbred Cloning* The Hydra (Plant) Shows Budding * Asexual Reproduction The roamer Plant and Strawberries often reproduce this way. Twins They are formed by the fertilised egg splitting in half and the two halves turn into to two identical babies. Artificial CloningFor many years, mammals examine on been cloned by splitting embryos Artificial Cloning. There are two types of Artificial Cloning Cloning Way 11. They take an egg cell from one mammal.2. A bole Cell is taken from a mho mammal (the same mammal as the first)3. The egg cell nucleus is removed from the cell4. The tree trunk cell nucleus is also removed5. The Nucleus from the body cell is inserted into the egg cell to drag a clone of the Second Mammal. 6. The egg cell divides and is put into the uterus of the first Mammal. The Clone grows into a mature mammal. Cloning Way 2It isnt just Reproductive Cloning (Cloning People/mammals) we could use this technology for. Cloning human cells may be useful in treating humans.Reproductive Cloning When a baby is born from cloningStem CellsA stem cell is an undifferentiated cell which delegacy they can turn into any type of cell required. They can therefore be used to hasten organs. They Can be used to replace scathed cells.Inherited indispositionsCystic Fibrosis* 1 in cc Children are affected by Cystic Fibrosis.* Is an Inherited disease* They produce thick sticky mucus. This can block the air passages a nd the tubes that carry digestive juices to the gut.* The Child has trouble breathing and absorbing food.* Patients are inured by chest physio-therapy.* The Mucus is a good breeding ground for germs.* Sufferers often get infections and have to be treated with strong antibiotics. At the moment there is no cure. * Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessionary Allele(c) So to contract the disease a person must have two recessive alleles (cc). * Heterozygous spate (Cc) do not get the disease but can act as carriers and pass it on to their children. * The disease is shown from Birth.* It affects the lungs and gut.Huntingtons Disease* This is a rare inherited disease.* It affects about 1 in 20,000* It shows up when the forbearing is about 30 40 years old.* The cells of the brain degenerate and the unhurried charters clumsy and jerky movements.* The sufferers become moody and depressed.* The memory is affected and they eventually become totally disabled. * Huntingtons disease is caus ed by a dominant gene so only one allele is requisite to give the disease. * So all heterozygous people are sufferers because the onset of the disease occurs so slow many people have produced a family before they find out they have the condition. * The Organ accomplished is the Brain.Bacteria cellBacteria are known as micro-organisms. Many of these cause disease. Those that cause disease are called Pathogens. Other micro-organisms include Protozoans, Fungi and Viruses. Micro Organisms reproduce quickly in warm, damp places. at once inside a host of Pathogens reproduce and cause Infection.How Pathogens can enter our Body* Nat Bites/ Being Bitten* take in* Touch* Sexually Transmitted* Bugs* Dogs/ Animals* Breathing it in* Birds* set upions* Cuts* Natural Openings* rent Transplants* Organ TransplantsThings that protect our Body from Pathogens* Eyebrows/ Eyelashes* Cilia* Acid* Mucus* Tears* Skin* White Blood Cells* Healing over cutsGaining Immunity slip1) pack is Infected by s ome bacteria that causes a disease 2) The bacteria reproduce and James gets ill. 3) One of James white blood cells detect the bacteria. It asks anti bodies to destroy the bacteria. 4) The white blood cells reproduce. direct there are lots of them making Anti-bodies. 5) The bacteria are all killed. James gets better.6) Most of the white blood cells that make the antibodies die, but a few of them stay in the blood. 7) James is infected with the same bacteria again. 8) The white blood cells to make the antibody are still in James Blood. So this duration they are ready to kill the bacteria very quickly. 9) The bacteria are killed before they can make James ill. He is Immune to this disease. Anti-body = A Chemical made by White blood cells which binds to Antigen. Antigen = A marker on the surface of a Pathogen that identifies it as foreign. Pathogen = A micro-organism which causes Disease.White Blood Cells* Produce Anti-bodies to invalidate the Microbe* They eat the microbe* They pr oduce anti-toxins to neutralise the poisons produced by microbes.Producing Anti-bodies1. A White Blood cell detects a pathogen.2. A White Blood cell produces Anti-bodies.3. The anti-bodies bind with Antigens.4. The Pathogen is engulfed by the White Blood Cell.Natural ImmunityThis is when Anti-bodies are produced by a Person when needed or they are passed on by a mother during Pregnancy.Artificial ImmunityA Vaccine with dead Microbes is injected the body is tricked into producing anti-bodies ready for the genuine thing. This is called Passive Immunisation. We should use the new influenza vaccines every year because influenza reproduces very quickly. Also it has a high mutation rate, which means that it changes so you need to continually be protected by Influenza. oddly if you suffer from other illnesses, because you would be at risk the most. Also the antigens would have changed shape.Vaccinations PolicyBenefits Wont paste through a large population is a benefit. Also if a woman has a vaccination then falls pregnant she passes the antibodies onto the child. A vaccine Policy is a decision made by the government to vaccinate a large amount of people. This usually only works if the majority of people agree to it.AntibioticsImmunity/ Immune When your body has already met a Pathogen once and therefore cannot make you ill again Antibody These attach to pathogens and Stick the together. Vaccine/ Vaccination An inactive or dead version of a pathogen is introduced into the body. Antigen The marker on a Pathogen that a White Blood Cell can recognise. White Blood cells a Cell that produces Antibodies.Antibiotics* You take them and they kill the bacteria and it makes you better* You have to take them continually* They take a while to settle in* They kill infections* They are produced by Bacteria and Fungi* atomic number 18 Drugs that are sound at killing Bacteria and Fungi* Antibiotics do not seriously damage body cells* Antibiotics are derived from micro-organisms* Penicillin comes from bread mould and was the first antibiotic discovered.* However they have limited use and have no effect on viruses.Antibiotics and poinsettia strainsAntibiotics are used to kill Bacteria and Fungi in an infection in the body. The chemicals are made from Fungi and Bacteria. Antibiotics are Drugs that kill Bacteria and Fungi without harming body cells. These drugs do not affect viruses. A Superbug Bacteria is a Mutation to a universal Bacteria. It is resistant to normal Antibiotics.How could we help Reduce Superbugs?HospitalsHospitals can make sure that they treat people with the Superbug properly tostop it from spreading. Keep the Hospital Clean. Inject staff to Stop it Spreading, and to make them Immune. GPInject people more Often and Give out Leaflets.Drug CompaniesMake a more effective drug and make a vaccine.The PublicAllow people to inject them and make them immune.Antibiotic resistivityStages1. The cell starts to replicate the DNA2. The cell has had the DNA Replicate. So therefore the cell has elongated.3. The Cell has started budding.4. binary star Fission has taken place and the cell has cloned itself.A Mutation is a change in the bases that make up DNA. These changes can cause a change in a gene. This can change a Protein and thus affect the Characteristics of an Organism.Drug TrialsIt is important to do strict test on drugs to check that they are safe for use, do what they are supposed to do and to check the side effects. Drugs are tested on human cells that have been developed in a laboratory (The drug is tested on different body cells), then it is tested on animals (to see whether it works as well on upstanding animals as on the cells) before it is used on human patients(these are tested on volunteers).The tether drug trials are Double blind(both doctor and patient do not know the drug is new), machination trial(only the patient does not know the drug is true but the doctor does), and Open trial(both doctor and patient kn ow the drug is new). A placebo is when a doctor gives a patient something that does not contain Drugs. A Placebo is used in blind trials.

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